Pandavas during their 12 years of exile.
जो आपकी रक्षा करती है उससे कुछ असुविधाये भी आपको होती ही है।
कौन कहता है दुष्टों के मरने पर हर्षित नहीं होना चाहिये ?
मुग़लों के लिए, अंग्रेजों के लिए भारत ... हमेशा ही आक्रमण का सबसे पसंदीदा क्षेत्र क्यों?
Bali was killed by Prabhu Shri Ram: Ram Katha
EDUCATION IN INDIA
NOTE: The content below is directly taken from internet websites; the details of which are mentioned in the references given in the end of this document; and the content is for reading purpose only. This content is not the original work and is not for publication.
The name of the books (passed from Board of Studies) meant for reference and to be read are already given alongwith the syllabus to the students.
UNIT I
Vedic Education
The Vedas, meaning knowledge in Sanskrit, are the oldest known Sanskrit scriptures. They are a body of texts attributed to ancient sages or rishis. In the epic Mahabharata, their creation is said to be the work of Brahma (the god of creation).
The Vedas were usually taught at gurukuls. Gurukul was a residential schooling system popular in ancient India. At the gurukul, all were considered equal. The guru (teacher) and shishya (students) lived in the same house or near each other. This relationship was considered sacred and no fee was taken from the students. Students typically attended the gurukul from age of 8 into their early twenties. At the end of their education, each student offered a gurudakshina, a token or mark of respect to the teacher. It was usually money or a special task that the teacher required. The gurukul was otherwise supported by public donations.
Before the British rule, gurukuls were the preferred form of education in India. During colonial times, the British imported their centralized system of industrial-era education while systematically de-emphasising Vedic education. However, lately this ancient form of education is seeing renewed interest.
Relevance of Vedic Education in 21st Century
Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of Arya Samaj and Swami Shraddhanand, were the pioneers of the modern gurukul system, who in 1886 founded now-widespread Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Public Schools and Universities.
In 1948, Shastriji Maharaj Dharamjivan Das Swami followed suit and initiated first Swaminarayan Gurukul in Rajkot in Gujarat. Recently, several gurukuls have opened up to retrace the roots of Indian culture. This urge is being driven by the government, academics and parents.
Simplicity of living, a strict schedule and respect for the teacher are principles emphasized at a gurukul. Equality and independence is impressed upon the students by having all of them clean and pick up after themselves. Spirituality is impressed upon the students through prayer, yoga and meditation. In today’s competitive world, this can help children reduce stress and anxiety. Vedic education is more than just an education system, it is a way of living. This focus on all-round personality development is an attractive aspect of Vedic education.
Aims of Vedic Education
Vedic Education is not the same as religious education. Before the British arrival and decline of Vedic Education, India was ruled by the Mughals (Muslims by religion). The system existed and flourished even under their rule over 3 centuries. It points to the religious neutrality of the system. The aspect of peer learning was even praised by the British Governor of Bengal (comprised of modern day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, and North East India). According to historian and author, Mr. A.S. Altekar, the aims of Vedic education are as under:
Personality Development
In Vedic education, one’s personality was developed through self realization and self respect. The end goal was to build self awareness ie. knowing oneself intimately. Good judgement had to be developed through practice. Daily tasks focused on physical, mental, and emotional development. Students built their personalities in a multi dimensional manner.
Character Formation
Ancient Indians did not believe that intellect alone was important. Morality was equally necessary. Learning divided from morality was considered useless. Vedic education helped form character by encouraging a simple life. Students were Brahmachari (celibate) as long as they were learning. Their lives ran according to a strict schedule. Pleasures, comforts and luxuries were seen as unnecessary. Plain food, good behaviour and high ideals were encouraged. The gurus did not only teach the students but watched over their moral behaviour as well.
Performance of Civic and Social Duties
The students’ responsibility to society was made clear. In the gurukul, they all lived as equals, and participated in all jobs. Their daily tasks involved cleaning and keeping their residence in liveable conditions. Their duty to the world outside their walls was also of great importance. They were made aware of the importance of being good spouses and parents. Their wealth was not to be used for their own wants, but for the good of society. They were also taught to honor the codes of whatever professions they may choose.
Practical Education
Vedic education was not based solely on learning out of books. Hands on training in professions that interested the students was encouraged. They were taught the dignity of manual labour and the value of having a vocational training. Vocations included weaving, pottery and a number of other arts and professions.
Preservation and Spread of Culture
A large part of the vedas is dedicated to traditions, cultures and rituals. Preservation of the literary and cultural traditions was necessary. Education was seen as the means to pass traditions to the next generation. Hence, the students were taught that they owed three debts — to the gods, to the past gurus, and to their ancestors. The students learned to serve the gods, which paid the first debt. The second was paid by learning the teachings of past intellectuals. The third debt to the ancestors was paid by raising children and educating them. Thus, all the traditions were preserved and passed on.
Achieving Enlightenment
While education was used to make students productive members of society, it had a spiritual element to it. Prayers and rituals were performed both daily and at important milestones such as birth, marriage, and death. This was done to teach each student the importance of the nonphysical world. The aim was to lay an equal emphasis on body and soul.
Learning Process
Eligibility and Admission
Eligibility was not based on gender in Vedic times. Men and women alike studied the Vedas. There are records of several scholarly women and even women sages (rishikas). There is some evidence that the Shudra caste (untouchables) was not allowed to study. While teachers were usually of the Brahmin caste, students could be Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya.
Students were eligible once they underwent the upanayana or sacred thread ceremony. The child underwent this ceremony between the ages of 8 to 12. Studies usually went on for 12 years.
Curriculum
1. The Vedas — There are four Vedas — The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. These are classified as Samhitas, or mantras and benedictions.
2. The Aranyakas and Brahmanas — the Aranyakas are the text on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices. The Brahmanas comment on those rituals.
3. Upanishads — These texts discuss meditation, philosophy and the spiritual world.
4. Vedangas — These consist of six areas of study: Phonetics, ritualistic knowledge, grammar, exegetics (the science of interpretation), metrics and astronomy.
Methods of Teaching
1. Memorization — Learning the sacred texts by heart is an essential step in studying the Vedas. Repetition and recitation by the teacher and students was important.
2. Introspection — This has three steps. The first is Sravana, which means listening to texts recited by the teacher. This is how the student absorbs the teacher’s knowledge. The second is Manana, which involves deliberation and reflection. The student what has been taught and what they can learn from it. The third step is Nididhyasana, or meditation. This is the step through which truth is realized and attained.
3. Critical Analysis — The students are taught to think critically and come to their own conclusions. Students may even disagree with their teachers and bring them around to their way of thinking.
4. Hands-on Learning — Learning by doing was encouraged, especially as many students went into trades later. In areas such as medicine, observation and practice was necessary.
5. Seminars — Debates and discussions were held often. Students could discuss topics of interest and put their views forward.
Higher Studies
While some students went to their trades or professions, many continued to learn. Institutions known as Parishads were places of higher learning. Advanced students gathered there to learn through discussion and discourse. Three Brahmins conducted these sessions. Eventually that increased to 21 Brahmins learned in theology and philosophy. In today’s world, they would be considered equal to colleges.
Scholars would continue learning through their life by attending Sammelans (gatherings). These were discussions and competitions in which some of the most learned people in the country participated. They were often presided over by kings, who invited the scholars.
Modern Efforts for Vedic Education
Private Efforts
People around India have taken on the effort to bring back the philosophies of Vedic education. Privately funded gurukuls have sprung up around the country. They are often run by religious trusts. They take in students on a residential basis. Spirituality and traditional values are of importance in these institutes. The accommodation and food are usually simple and basic, as they would be in Vedic times. Parents often pick these for children stressed by the burden of the modern educational system.
Om Shantidhama’s Vedic Gurukul Hemachandra Sanskrit Pathshala, in Bangalore’s
Kanakpura district, is one of these. Started in 1997, it is run on donations and by charging fees for professionals classes. Students pay no fee for boarding, food and books. This gurukul combines Vedic education with modern day CBSE subjects to ensure the children get the best of both worlds. The Vedas are recited as given in the ancient texts. The students are encouraged to engage in yoga, meditation and physical activity.
Hemachandra Sanskrit Pathshala, another gurukul in Ahmedabad, was started by philanthropist Uttambai Shah. It is run by a Jain trust. The campus has many features from ancient times — cow dung plastered floors, organic food, and fresh milk from the cows that are bred nearby. The only concession made for electricity. This gurukul stresses more on the Vedic texts. Arts and sciences are taught according to methods outlined in the ancient texts. The gurukul offers no certification, though some students may get one from the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). A similar setup has been started nearby for girls, by another Jain trust.
Maharashtra’s Kaneri district and Jodhpur in Rajasthan also have gurukuls run by religious trusts.
Government Efforts
As seen in the example above, gurukuls often do not offer certificates. This may result in problems for students who want to enter the formal employment system. To this end, the government has begun to make efforts for formal certification for such institutes.
As outlined here, Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Ved Vidya Pratishthan (MSRVVP), an independent organization in Ujjain, was set up to promote Vedic education. Around 450 organizations of traditional learning are currently affiliated with it. Despite holding exams, it does not have any formal authority. The Human Resources Development (HRD) Ministry hopes to change that. Recognizing traditional education starts with setting up a school board. The Ministry plans to do this by elevating the MSRVVP to a formal body. This body would not only certify and support gurukuls, but also come up with new kinds of schools. These schools may have Vedas and Sanskrit as majors and modern subjects as minors.
It is important to note that these plans are in the proposal stage as of 2017. Until these are formalized, Vedic education does not have any government recognized form of certification.
Concluding Thoughts
The Vedic system of education may be ancient, but it can still be relevant in today’s world. Unlike modern day education, it focuses on all-round development — physical, mental, and emotional. You may decide that a gurukul isn’t an option for your child, but can still instil these principles in them by supplementing their education with Vedic traditions.
While India might not return to Vedic education as the only form of education, it does represent a desirable option for some Indians. Introducing these philosophies as part of broader curriculum, or at home, or in extra-curriculars are viable alternatives. Enough has been discussed about the problems ailing the Indian Education system. Maybe a healthy balance of traditional Vedic system and modern education is a panacea that the Indian education system needs.
Development of Education during the Buddhist Period in India
Buddhism came into existence in about 600 B.C. Buddhism and Jainism were offshoots of Hinduism. As there was little change in their ideals of life, the concept of education also suffered only a shift of emphasis.
There was no water tight compartment in the realm of thought separating Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism. They all contributed harmoniously to the development of culture as a whole and their contributions to education were inextricably mixed up. The creative vein of the age was reflected in the field of education and culture.
As frontiers of knowledge became wide, pursuit of knowledge also assumed a more systematic and organised method. The practice of Buddhist Education probably varied very much in different countries and at different times. We get a valuable picture of Buddhist education as it existed in India from the records left by certain Chinese Buddhist scholars, who visited India in the fifth and seventh centuries of this era.
They had undertaken long, toilsome and dangerous journeys, only because the fame of the Buddhist monasteries in India as places of learning had crossed the territorial jurisdiction of India. Fa-hien, who was in India between A.D. 339 and A.D. 414, makes frequent references to monasteries as seats of learning. Huen Tsiang who came to India during A.D. 629 to A. 645 referred to the popularity of Buddhism which was in a flourishing state. I-Tsing another Chinese scholar who came to India and was in the country from A.D. 673 to 687 also highlighted some of the brighter aspects of the prevalent system of education.
The main educational centers of Buddhism were Monasteries and Viharas. A network of such centers of education was started during the period. The entire educational system was controlled and supervised by the monks. There was provision for both religions as well as secular types of education. Therefore, emphasis was laid on personal conduct rather than external rites and ceremonies as in the Brahmanic system. Thus the aim of education was to prepare for a good life, a moral life.
The whole discipline (Siksha) had three important aspects viz, morality contemplation and wisdom. In Buddhist morality, there was infusion of practical needs with theoretical knowledge and stress on ascetic life against worldly life. With the advent of Buddhisim the demand for education among the people considerably increased. The relaxation of barriers of caste in the sphere of religion and learning helped for the expansion of education.
But it was confined to the upper classes of the society and did not make any headway among masses. As Buddhism became popular and attracted people, the demand for education considerably increased. Be it as it may, Buddhisim broke the monopoly of any particular section of the society pertaining to teaching and learning.
Aims of Education:
It is evident that during this period, the aims of education were similar to those of Vedic age. Instead of emphasizing spiritual elevation, the stress was laid on the development of personality which included physical, moral, mental and intellectual development; formation of moral character, which included among other things, right conduct, integrity, morality, piety, humility and good virtues.
Besides, religious education was given top priority and efforts were made to achieve Salvation or Nirvana through religious education. There was also provision for imparting worldly and practical knowledge along with religious education.
Pandavas during their 12 years of exile.
मंदिर सरकारी चंगुल से मुक्त कराने हैं?
Why idol worship is criticized? Need to know idol worshipping.
तंत्र--एक कदम और आगे। नाभि से जुड़ा हुआ एक आत्ममुग्ध तांत्रिक।
क्या था रावण की नाभि में अमृत का रहस्य? तंत्र- एक विज्ञान।।
आचार्य वात्स्यायन और शरीर विज्ञान।
तांत्रिक यानी शरीर वैज्ञानिक।।
मनुष्य के वर्तमान जन्म के ऊपर पिछले जन्म अथवा जन्मों के प्रभाव का दस्तावेज है।
Find out how our Gurukul got closed. How did Gurukul end?
Bali was killed by Prabhu Shri Ram: Ram Katha
What was the secret of nectar in Ravana's navel? Tantra - a science.
Women Education in Ancient India. Satyug (Golden Age)
How blindfoldedly we kept trusting western culture that led us vanished.
Indian Education System..then and now: A misery A tragedy.
Educational Organisation:
During this period education was institutionalized and the doors of education were open to all. In different parts of the country monasteries sprung up for diffusing education-religious, academic and practical. In consideration of their accessibility the sites of the monasteries were selected as centers of learning.
The arrangement of boarding and lodging being excellent in the monasteries, many persons from wealthy, cultured and respectable families, were attracted towards education. The demand for education considerably developed in the upper class of the society. But it had no significant impact the masses.
Besides the monasteries, there were the Vedic schools and Secular schools. The rules of administering both the Vedic and Buddhist institutions were of a similar nature. In the Vedic age, the educational institutions were isolated and independent. The education depended upon the system of individual schools and a succession of ideal teachers and disciples. But during the period under review there was a confederation of such schools in large monastic institutions comprising a number of teachers and students.
The Buddhist educational system got further stability as a result of elaborate residential and other arrangements. Mr. F.E. Keay remarked, “The Brahmanical solitude of hermitages in the woods as an aid to the spiritual life came to be substituted by the social atmosphere of the Sangha humming with activities of several hundreds of monks in residences near busy haunts of men. Serenity, joy and energetic striving were the characteristics of this atmosphere.
But the Hindu residential system at the house of the preceptor was free from the artificialities of a boarding school or residential university and in this respect it was superior to Buddhist residential system in the monasteries. It was this artificiality of the system that ultimately led to the decline of the Buddhist monasteries.
Admission:
The conditions of admission to the Sangha, or Community of Bhikhus were very simple. Like the Vedic educational system, the ceremony of initiation formed an essential part of Buddhist education. The first act of admission was called the ‘Pabbajja’ or the preparatory ordination for education. After this ordination, at the age of eight the boy would enter the monastery as a
‘Shramana’Before admission to the order, the boy had to take oath of ‘Three Refuges’. Buddham Sharanam Gachchhami, (I take refuge with the Buddha), Dhararam Sharanam Gachchhami (I take refuge with the religion) and Sangham Sharanam Gachhami (I take refuge with the order). As far as possible caste distinction was not coming in the way of admission. According to Buddha, the different castes became one after being admitted to the order, just like the rivers by merging into the ocean became one with it.
The boy had to live in the monastery under the guidance of his preceptor and the disciplinary regulations of monastery were applicable to him. Certain restrictions were imposed on him in the monastery. A Shramana was strictly forbidden to commit violence, speak untruth, take intoxicants, etc. Without the consent of the parents a boy was not considered eligible for admission. The ceremony for full admission was called the ‘Upasampada’. This final ordination could not be performed before the age of twenty years. Generally after
‘Upasampada’ the Shramana was enjoying the status of a monk and regarded as a fully fledged membership of the order.
The ‘Upasampada’ was performed in the form of a function in the presence of all the monks of the order. On that occasion the novice was choosing his preceptor ‘Upadhya’. If any monk wanted to withdraw himself from the ‘Sangha’. He had to make a declaration confessing the reasons of his withdrawal. Besides, a monk under the circumstances of breaking the solemn pledge or falling a victim to worldly temptations was liable to be expelled from the Holy order. A ‘Bhikshu’ could not accept the office of preceptor till he had himself been a
‘Bhikshu’ could not accept the office of preceptor till he had himself been a ‘Bhikshu’ at least for ten years and was learned and competent.
During this period pupils, lived in the monasteries or viharas either as Shramanas or fully fledged monks. Though viharas and monasteries were established in different parts of the country yet they were organised together to form links of well organised viharas. In those monasteries the pupils and the ‘Upadhyay’ were living together. The Buddhist Viharas were the educational centers used not only for religious learning but also as the centers for secular arts and crafts. As there was no dearth of accommodation in these monasteries, there were separate chambers and halls wells equipped and well decorated for different purposes.
Curriculum:
Since the chief-ideal of Buddhist education was the attainment of Nirvana or Salvation, education was thoroughly saturated with religion and it was spiritual in essence. Though the study of religion predominated the entire society yet one should not infer the conclusion that there was no provision for practical and technical education. In this period India had marked a high water level of development in Literature, Philosophy, Arts, Commerce, Agriculture and the Methods of warfare.
The main subjects of Buddhist education were Spinning, Weaving, Printing of the cloth, Tailoring, Accountancy, Painting, Ayurveda, Surgery etc. The Primary grade education aimed at teaching 3 Rs. (Reading, Writing, Arithmetic). But the higher education comprising teaching in Religion, Philosophy, Medicine, Military Science, etc. for choosing different subjects. Caste distinction was not a bar.
Besides these subjects, different arts and crafts also formed an essential part of the curriculum. The following arts were taught ill different institutions—Elephant lores, Magic charms, Spells, Hunting, Spell for understanding the cries of all the creatures. Archery, the arts of Prognostication, Sarpa Vidya, Medicine etc. Students could specialise in any of these arts. Taxila was the center of education in these Arts and Sciences. Both theoretical as well as practical aspects of education were equally emphasised.
It is evident from the written account of Chinese traveler, Fa- Hien, that the Brahmanical system of education was also popular in the fifth century A.D. The knowledge of Sanskrit was indispensable for higher education. So Fa-Hien had to remain at Pataliputra for three years for acquiring adequate knowledge in Sanskrit. As all the important Buddhist works have been written in Pali, the Pali and other regional languages were also popular during the period. However, there was a harmonious combination of both seculars and spiritual aspects of education.
Hiuen-Tsang, another Chinese traveller has quoted the ‘example of Nalanda, pertaining to higher education, where Buddhist Philosophy, the literature, the Yoga and other spiritual sciences were taught. The institution at Vikramashila earned name and fame for imparting teaching in Logic (Tarka Shastra) and Jurisprudence (Nyaya Shastra).
As mentioned earlier, the Buddhist system had not ignored occupational and technical aspects of education. The monks in the monasteries were at liberty to acquire proficiency in various arts and craft. Jivaka, a great physician and surgeon of that age, acquired considerable knowledge and skill in the operation of brain and intestines. Similarly Charak, rightly known as the Father of Ayurveda, was a product of this age. The center of medical science was Taxila, which attracted students from far and near.
Besides Ayurveda, the masses were trained in many useful crafts, arts architecture and in such occupations as agriculture, commerce, cottage industry, animal husbandry etc. in the same way as the people of the vedic period received facilities of training in these occupations.
Methods of Teaching:
During the period the art of writing had considerably developed, but it had not reached the masses as regards its practical use. Therefore, the method of instruction was mainly oral as it was during the vedic age. The pupils used to learn the content of different subject matter by rote. As the both preceptors and the pupils were residing in the monasteries, the preceptor had recourse to direct method in teaching.
A preceptor used to suggest a lesson to the pupil’s and the pupil was learning the lesson by heart. After ascertaining the pupil s comprehension of a particular lesson the preceptor proceeded with further lesson. Thinking, meditation and self-study were duly emphasised.
In viharas and monastic schools Hetu Vidya or Inductive method of logic was adopted and through this method the intellect of the pupils was trained. Discussions, talks and argumentations were also organised periodically on different religious and philosophical subjects. In order to train the pupils in the art of debating from the very beginning of their academic career, there was provision for occasional discussion among the followers of different religions.
For the intellectual benefit of the pupils sometimes outstanding celebrities and authorities on religion and philosophy were invited to deliver talks on different topics. Besides, stimulating environment was provided for widening the mental horizon of the pupils and for developing clarity of vision for solving intricate problems of life. In order to give a realistic and practical shape to what the pupils had learnt at the monastic schools, the pupils used to undertake the journey from one place to another at the end of their academic career.
In addition to this, Buddhist Period debates and periodical gatherings were organised. Monks from different monasteries were participating in the discussions and delivering speeches on philosophical and religious topics. Pupils were also encouraged to participate in these meetings for increasing their knowledge appreciably.
In regard to technical education in secular science, arts and crafts, the teaching method was identical with that of Brahmanical education. Pupils were given education through both theoretical and practical methods. After completion of the theoretical study the pupils were serving a term of apprenticeship under some expert artisans for picking up practical knowledge and skill in arts and crafts.
Pupil-Preceptor Relations:
The pupil and preceptor relation in the Buddhist system of education was the same as during the Vedic period. In this monastic system of education, the pupil after his admission was placing himself under the supervision and guidance of a preceptor. The main ideas of this connection of teacher and pupil were taken over from Brahmanic education, like the
Vedic system the pupil was going to bed later than his preceptor and was getting up earlier. Early in the morning the pupil had to give water, clay, teeth cleanser, etc. to his preceptor. The pupil was sweeping and cleaning the room and was also going for begging with his preceptor. But the pupil was always keeping a distance while following the preceptor.
The preceptor also had certain responsibilities towards his pupils. He had to treat the pupil as his own son and also helped him at the time of distress. But the most sacred and noble duty of the preceptor was to impart intellectual and spiritual education of a higher order to his pupils. The preceptor was an ideal before his pupils as he possessed excellent moral character, selfpossession and spiritualism.
It is quite evident from the writings of Huen- Tsang that in the Vihars like Nalanda, there were profound scholars who put forth a living example before the pupils. Thus the pupil preceptor relationship was pious, cordial and intimate. The preceptor was held in high esteem and greatly respected. The only difference between the pupil and the preceptor was merely spiritual superiority of the latter to the former.
However, Buddhist education influenced the general mass of the people, at least those who adhered to Buddhism, and provided opportunities for popular instruction. Even then, this system of education was not altogether immune from defects. So much it was dominated by religions that arts and crafts, in the last phase of it, came to be looked down upon by the members of higher classes and ultimately they gave them up completely.
In comparison to Vedic age the ratio of mass education decreased considerably. Due lo certain lapses and laxity of central organisation the ‘Samgha’ (order) which was regarded as the veritable forte of Buddhist religion, ultimately proved to be the sole cause of its downfall. As this system of education was founded on the principles of nonviolence and renunciation of the world, the military art and science could not make satisfactory progress. In the garb of democracy arbitrariness prevailed.
According to Buddhist religion the world is full of sorrows and sufferings. Therefore, the sole aim of life was considered to be the attainment of salvation (Nirvana) by renouncing the world. This aim of life reflected in the aim of education and it naturally resulted in artificiality.
The meaning of the ‘struggle of life’ was confined lo mere metaphysical speculation. As a result the all round progress and development of life received a serious blow. But in course of time certain drawbacks and weaknesses crept into the system. Democratic principles were abused and the monks and nuns fell victim to moral turpitude and corruption.
At length, the foreigners invaded the country. With her poor military skill and organisation she failed to meet the challenges of the foreigners and the pace of downfall accelerated. Buddhism had considerable influence upon Indian philosophic thought and religious ideals. But on the educational side it is difficult to estimate the amount of its influence. It goes without saying that Buddhism have done something to extend amongst the people of India the desire and also stimulated a demand for some popular education.
As a natural consequence, Buddhism along with the system of education declined gradually in India, and the Brahmanic system of education came into ascendancy anew through the efforts of the religious thinkers and philosophers such as Shankaracharya, Madhavacharya etc.
Financing of Education:
Financing of education during this period became systematised and stabilised. The casual manner of assisting educational institutions, as in the previous period could not hold good. The random gifts and occasional charities were inadequate to meet the daily requirements of the viharas and monasteries.
The sources of revenue to education continued to be almost the same as in vedic period. But in order to ensure a continuous flow of resources to the educational institutions, some of the sources became stable and fixed. During the period, the state shouldered greater responsibility for maintenance of these temple of learning and education enjoyed royal patronage.
Emperor Ashoka helped for the expansion of education by establishing many monasteries, nunneries and edicts throughout his empire. Due to his endeavour live hundred monasteries were built in Kashmir alone. King Kanishka of Kushana dynasty was a great patron of scholars. The eminent Buddhist scholars Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Vasumitra and the celebrated physician Charaka enjoyed his patronage.
The Gupta rulers Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II were great patrons of famous scholars. To mention a few Vasubandhu, Harisena and Kalidasa flourished during Gupta period. Harsha’s exemplary munificence to the cause of learning influenced and inspired other kings to open their treasuries to accelerate the progress of education and learning.
The state patronage was extended to education in the following ways:
1. Granting lands and pensions to teachers and learned men;
2. Appointing learned men as officers in the state service;
3. Granting scholarship to students:
4. Subsidising students to start life;
5. Relaxing laws of limitation in favour of students; and
6. Exempting students and poor Brahmins from taxation.
However, the financial patronage of the state was without any strings attached to it. The common men of the society also contributed their share to education whatever they could afford. The other sources of income during the period were gifts from the people in general, fees collected for the services rendered by the pupils, endowments in the form of elaborate residential buildings and landed property endowed for the maintenance of institutions etc.
The main item of expenditure was the maintenance of the staff and students of the institution. Next came the expenditure on the management and care of the endowments and the salary of the teachers which consisted of the expenditure on their maintenance and supply of primary needs of life. Besides expenditure incurred on the mess arrangement of the students, provision of suitable robes to the monks, medical aid, production of literature and maintenance of library books and a number of minor items of expenditure.
On the whole, the system of education prevalent during Buddhist period ensured a permanent supply of qualified men devoting themselves for the service of humanity by a life of complete self-denial, of celibacy, of poverty and wandering homelessness.
They renounced the materialistic world and left the society only to qualify themselves for serving it better, as teachers and preachers. They travelled through the length and breadth of the country only to enlighten the people and spread learning.
Development of Education during the Medieval Period in India
Education in the Muslim Period
The beginning of the 8th century A.D. witnessed a large number of Mohammedan invasions. Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded the country and established a large number of schools and libraries in his own country by the looted wealth. Later on when the Muslim rulers established permanent empire in India, they introduced a new system of education. Consequently, the ancient system of education was greatly changed. In fact, the education of the Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period. No Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in the field of education.
Aim of Education
The aim of education during Muslim period was the illumination and extension of knowledge and the propagation of Islam. The education of this period was imparted for the propagation of Islamic principles, laws and social conventions. Education was based on religion and its aim was to make persons religiousminded. The Muslim education aimed also at the achievement of material prosperity.
Organization of Education
In the Muslim period, education was organized in Maktabs and Madrasas. Primary education was given in Maktabs and Higher Education in Madrasas. In Maktabs the children were made to remember the ‘Ayats’ of Quran. They were also imparted the education of reading, writing and primary arithmetic. Children were given the education of Persian language and script. After completing the primary education, children were sent to Madrasas to receive higher education. Special emphasis was also given to the education of religious education of secular subjects, which was imparted in Madrasas. The chief characteristics of education in Muslim period were lack of University education, neglect of Vernaculars, decline in teacher- pupil relationship and problem of discipline. Corporal punishment was started. The system of examination depended upon the will of the teacher to send the pupil to the higher classes or not. Degree was given after the completion of education. Military education was also considered compulsory in order to establish supremacy over the Hindu kings.
Organization of Islamic Education in India
• Maktabs
In a Maktab children of general people were given primary education. Along with religious education they were also taught reading, writing and arithmetic. He was also taught some romantic literature of Persian e.g. Laila Majnu, Yusuf- Julekha etc. General practical education was also given in Maktabs. Letter writing applications and accountancy were taught in them.
• Madrasas
After completing the education in a Maktab, one could come to a Madrasa for Higher Education. During the Muslim period, Madrasas were centers of higher learning. In Madrasa, along with religious objective education, practical affairs of life were also attended to. Akbar did a great deal in this direction and tried to give a practical shape also to education in a unprecedented manner. Islamic religion was compulsorily taught to all the students. But Akbar stopped this tradition. He provided study of Hindu religion and philosophy also in many Madrasas. He introduced the study of medicine, history, geography, economics, political science, philosophy, astrology, law and mathematics. He made the study of Vedanta, Jurisprudence and Patanjali compulsory for Sanskrit students. Abul fazl has described the educational system introduced by Akbar in his famous book Ain-e-Akbari. Law in those days was based on religious practices. So the study of religious principles was in a way education in law.
Method of Teaching
Oral education and memorization of the assigned lesson were the chief methods of teaching in the Maktabs. Akbar encouraged writing and tried to reform the scripts. He wanted the educational procedure to be systematic. So he urged that the student should be given the knowledge of alphabets, then word knowledge and afterwards sentence knowledge. During this period, cooperation of students was sought in maintenance of discipline. Practical education was given much importance. There was no half-yearly or annual examination fixed for students. But the students were examined from time to time in practical situations of life.
Military training, development of fine arts, crafts and women education were given much importance in this period.
A Critique of Muslim Education
The education which developed and expanded during the long period of about six hundred and fifty years of Muslim rule in India had in it several merits as well as demerits. This education pattern cast a lasting 3 influence on Indian culture. The vestiges of that old educational system nurtured by the Muslim rulers are still to be found in the form of Maktabs. Although thee Maktabs, the dying echoes of the old system, have no utility for the masses, yet we do get an idea of the religious significance and the peculiarities of those times from these Maktabs, which have tenaciously continued to exist inspite of various political upheavals. The system of education of the Muslim period, no doubt, had many good points about it, but there were certain flagrant shortcomings that cannot escape a critical eye. If the education system of that age could take pride in the affection and regard between the teacher and the taught, self-dependence of student, peaceful environment of educational institutions, various means of encouraging students and integration of literary, useful and religious education, it would necessarily admit of that severe corporal punishment, religious bigotry, waste of time in learning reading and writing separately, supremacy of Arabic and Persian aloofness of students from the realities of life and lack of arrangement of education for women were the major defects of the system. The Muslim educational system inspite of having both merits and demerits led by its religious practice to the destruction of the old ancient Indian educational institutions also helped the expansion of Indian culture to Europe and Central Asia. This educational pattern was a veritable boon for presenting the unity among the Muslims. It was also helpful in strengthening the ties of equality and brotherhood among the neo-Muslims of India who were Hindu converts. Thus, this education while propagating Muslim culture succeeded in unifying into a complete unit, the whole of the Muslim society. Consequently the Muslim culture went on developing inspite of being in closer contrast with the culture of India.
BRITISH EDUCATION IN INDIA
Right from the beginning of their relationship with India, the British, who had come as traders and had become rulers and administrators, had influenced the economic, political and educational systems of the country. Their impact on the cultural and social life of India was, however, gradual. It is essential to review the educational policies under the British rule to understand the present and visualize the future.
EDUCATIONAL POLICIES IN INDIA ADOPTED BY THE BRITISH
Development of education system during the British period was determined by the needs of the colonial powers. If we analyse the development, we will find that the colonial interests of the British always shaped the then educational policies of India. European trading companies began their commercial activities in India from 1600 A.D. Gradually the Portuguese, the
French, the Dutch and the English settled in some parts and commercial centres of India.
Among them the English East India Company was ultimately able to establish their rule in India. Till the 19th century, they did not evolve any definite educational policy One should not suppose that there had been no educational system before the coming of the East India Company. When the British came to India and were gradually establishing themselves in
Bengal, they met such a system F. W. Thomas was of the opinion that “Education is no exotic in India. There is no country where the love of learning had so early an origin or has exercised so lasting and powerful an influence” . The modern system of education came to be established in India during the British period at the cost of the traditional indigenous system. Before the British established a new system of education in India both the Hindus and the Muslims had their own systems of education. Both the systems went into oblivion gradually and suffered a set – back because of political turmoil and lack of a strong centralised political authority and want of suitable patronage. Indian education had always been of a classical and spiritual rather of a practical nature. It was communicated through the sacred classical languages of the Hindus and the Muslims, namely Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. The Tols and Madrassas were the highest seminaries of learning meant for the specialists. These institutions were not meant for education of an elementary kind. For primary education, there were in the villages, Patsalas and Educational Policies in India under the British Rule Maktabs where the Gurus and Maulavis imparted knowledge of the three “R”s to the boys of the locality. There was no school for the education of the girls though the Zamindars often had their daughters educated at home. The indigenous Indian Education started with the advent of the British. The colonial interests of the British shaped the then educational policies of India. In his book, ‘Education in British India’ Arthur Howell says. "Education in India under the British Government was first ignored, then violently and successfully opposed, then conducted on a system now universally admitted to be erroneous and finally placed on its present footing" (1872:3). The development of education system during the British period was determined by the needs of the colonial powers. However the attitude of the British to education when they came to Bengal was one of the differences, and this was naturally so since India was yet to be a British colony and they were not yet the representatives of the British Crown. They were the employees of a great commercial concern called the East India Company. The Head – quarter of the Company were located at London and consisted of twenty four Directors, who used to manage the affairs of the Company abroad. For each of the British establishments in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, they appointed a Governor. After Regulating Act of 1773, the Governor of Calcutta was called the Governor- General and was given supervisory power over the Governors at Bombay and Madrassa.
REFERENCE LINKS:
• https://vedaeducation.in/what-is-vedic-education/